David Epstein

learning itself is best done slowly to accumulate lasting knowledge, even when that means performing poorly on tests of immediate progress. That is, the most effective learning looks inefficient; it looks like falling behind

twice as likely to start a blockbuster company as one who is thirty, and the thirty-year

Eventual elites typically devote less time early on to deliberate practice in the activity in which they will eventually become experts. Instead, they undergo what researchers call a “sampling period.” They play a variety of sports, usually in an unstructured or lightly structured environment; they gain a range of physical proficiencies from which they can draw; they learn about their own abilities and proclivities; and only later do they focus in and
ramp up technical practice in one area.

“We know that early sampling is key, as is diversity.”

People with range.

experience simply did not create skill in a wide range of real-world scenarios, from college administrators assessing student potential to psychiatrists predicting patient performance to human resources professionals deciding who will succeed in job training. In those domains, which involved human behavior and where patterns did not clearly repeat, repetition did not cause learning. Chess, golf, and firefighting are exceptions, not the rule.

Whether or not experience inevitably led to expertise, they agreed, depended entirely on the domain in question.

humans empowered to do what they do best without the prerequisite of years of specialized pattern recognition.

Modern work demands knowledge transfer: the ability to apply knowledge to new situations and different domains.

“Even the best universities aren’t developing critical intelligence,” he told me. “They aren’t giving students the tools to analyze the modern world, except in their area of specialization. Their education is too narrow.”