Pen & Sword Books

The Battle of the Frigidus River, fought on 5 and 6 September 394 in what is now Slovenia, was a crucial clash between the Eastern Roman emperor, Theodosius (later ‘the Great’), and the usurper Eugenius, who had seized power in the Western Empire. The battle was hard fought and lasted two days. At the end of the first, Theodosius was on the brink of defeat but the following day a great wind blowing against his enemy resulted in him securing a decisive victory. Eugenius, like Theodosius, was a Christian but, unlike Theodosius, he was tolerant of pagans, so this wind was seen as miraculous and the victory was attributed to God’s favour.Nic Fields’ narrative sets the battle in the context of the political situation within the empire and the campaigns leading up to this pivotal showdown. The armies of both protagonists are described, the tactics and strategy of the time discussed. Drawing on his detailed knowledge of the sources, the latest research and his own visits to the battlefield and surrounding terrain, the author then recounts the battle itself. Importantly he reveals the natural phenomenon behind the ‘miracle’ that saved Theodosius.Finally, the author analyzes and assesses the aftermath and consequences of this significant clash, which included Eugenius’ execution and the temporary reunification of the Eastern and Western Roman empires.

Takes the career of Spurius Ligustinus, detailed by the Roman historian Livy, as a focus, giving a very human and empathetic approachability to the author’s lucid and thorough analysis.Inside the Roman Legions aims to tell the story of the Roman soldier through a holistic, empathetic examination of what the experience of military service in the Middle Republic was really like. It traces real examples of soldiers described in the ancient sources to reveal how they traveled, how they were organized and what campaign objectives they faced. Specifically, the author follows the ordinary soldier Spurius Ligustinus, whose life is related by the historian Livy, as an example, detailing the experiences of his career. The book begins by discussing the young future soldier’s background and what military values were conveyed to him through the prevailing culture of the time. It then follows him through a range of potential experiences, examining camp conditions and training with various types of weapons and armor, and proceeds to take the reader through the experience of fighting in a pitched battle step by step. It also addresses experiences that only some soldiers would have had, such as escaping a total defeat, deserting, or being subject to unusual punishments. Throughout, the focus of the book is on how the individual might be shaped by the experiences as they are described.

On the evening of 16 May 1943, nineteen Avro Lancasters took off from RAF Scampton to undertake 617 Squadron’s first offensive attack since its formation a few weeks earlier. Loaded with Barnes Wallis’ newly designed bouncing bombs, the Bomber Command crews set course for their targets — the vital Möhne, Eder and Sorpe dams that served the Ruhr, the Third Reich’s industrial heartland.By the time the survivors began landing back at base at 03.11 hours the following morning, eight of the Lancasters had been shot down. However, both the Möhne and Eder dams had been breached, while the Sorpe was damaged. The flood waters that the attacks unleashed poured downstream, wreaking havoc on the surrounding countryside. Albert Speer, Hitler’s Minister of Armaments and War Production, later wrote: “That night, employing just a few bombers, the British came close to a success which would have been greater than anything they had achieved hitherto with a commitment of thousands of bombers.”In 1990, the renowned historian and author Dr John Sweetman published his seminal work on the events before, during and after Operation Chastise. His book was the result of decades of research into the famous attack, in the course of which Dr Sweetman corresponded with or interviewed many of the individuals involved — from the scientists to senior officers, and from groundcrew to the very airmen who delivered Barnes Wallis’ bouncing bombs to the dams.Such was the relationships that developed over the years, Dr Sweetman became a close friend to many of these individuals and their families. Some of the information contained in the interview transcripts and letters he received was included in his original book; much more, however, was never used. This is particularly the case with the many letters and conversations which Dr Sweetman received or had after his book was first published — much of which adds to, or elaborates on, the narrative of the events in May 1943.Dr John Sweetman has delved into his remarkable archive of material to present unseen sections of it here, for the historian or general reader, for the very first time.

In this stunning exposé, Dmitry Zubov reveals the dark truth of the terrible losses suffered by Soviet flyers, the inferiority of the Russian aircraft on World War II's Eastern Front, and the almost slave-like conditions in which those aircraft were made.The Soviet history of the Second World War, written under the conditions of a totalitarian regime, reflected all its features, with the result that it includes solid sets of patriotic fables that have no connection with reality. Many of the events of the war were distorted beyond recognition or even made up from beginning to end.Archives containing original documents were available only to selected, specially verified KGB ‘historians’ who presented only the version of the war that was acceptable to the Soviet regime. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the process of declassifying archives and gaining wide access to information gradually began to reveal the terrible truth of the crimes of the Soviet regime. One of which, of course, was the incompetent leadership of the Red Army, which led to massive loss of life across the military and civilians alike.However, the consequences of decades of Soviet propaganda had a strong impact on both Russian and world historical science. Because of this, not only Russian, but, unfortunately, many European and American historians found themselves repeating the Soviet myths they had been fed.The history of Soviet fighter aircraft did not escape this fate. The tale of Stalin’s so-called ‘Falcons’, who allegedly shot down dozens and even hundreds of Luftwaffe aircraft, was persistently drummed into the heads of many generations of Russian people. These heroes, supposedly, flew Soviet fighters whose technical characteristics were many times superior to their German counterparts, with the result that Luftwaffe aces were reportedly afraid of meeting them in the air. These primitive propaganda clichés became a model for describing the actions of Stalin’s fighter aircraft.In this stunning exposé, Stalin’s Falcons reveals the stark and dark truth of the terrible losses suffered by Soviet flyers, the inferiority of the Russian aircraft and the almost slave-like conditions in which those aircraft were made.

Pierre-François Percy was Surgeon-in-Chief of Napoleon’s Grande Armée. This is the first English translation of Baron Percy’s notebooks, containing his interesting, revealing, and informative testimony of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic campaigns in which he played an active role, as the most senior surgeon in the French Army, from 1799–1807.In his journal, Percy writes intimately about his life on campaign. He recounts his experiences across Europe, particularly in Switzerland (Helvetia), Germany, and Poland. The journal shows Percy’s delight at seeing his surgeons recognized for their work at Eylau, and his notes express his shock at the brazen corruption of military officials and the indiscriminate pillaging to which the French army frequently resorted. He recounts his audiences with Napoleon, during which his pleas for more resources and a more professional military surgical corps frequently fell on deaf ears. Details that may have seemed trivial to Percy’s contemporaries — about food, accommodation, dress, and transport — now offer a vital insight into the persistent struggles, and occasional pleasures, of those who followed Napoleon on his quest to conquer Europe.Percy documents his experiences of some of the major battles of the period; namely, Jena, Eylau, and Friedland. As a surgeon, he witnessed the enormous scale of devastation wrought by these significant battles, so often glorified in the historiography as tactical successes. His descriptions are meticulous and personal; injuries are described scientifically, their stark details offering a vivid and horrifying picture of the aftermath of the fighting.Percy’s singular position — living with the soldiers and sharing in their poor conditions, while also being aware of the administrative decisions that governed (and often negatively impacted) their lives — makes for an account that is simultaneously fascinating for the general reader and invaluable for scholars of military and surgical history.

A former Great War fighter pilot, Hermann Göring became, at his height, the second most powerful Nazi. Ambitious and ruthless, in addition to being a primary architect of the Third Reich state police and Gestapo, his numerous appointments included Commander-in-Chief of the Luftwaffe, Director of the Four Year Plan and playing a leading role in the Final Solution to the ‘Jewish Question’. By the outbreak of the war in 1939, he was acknowledged as Hitler’s successor and in 1940 was given the special rank of Marshal of the Empire and senior to all field marshals through the German armed services. Due to being held responsible for a number of military disasters, Göring’s pre-eminent position declined as the war dragged on to the point where he was expelled from the Party for ‘illegally attempting to seize control of the State’. Captured by the Allies, he was found guilty at Nuremberg of being a leading war aggressor and advocate of the persecution of Jews and other races. He cheated the hangman by committing suicide.The career of this leading Nazi is admirably described here in words and copious images.

In the mild climate of the Mediterranean, a rare blossom once bloomed: a prosperous, urbanised society inhabited by various ethnic and religious groups living harmoniously together for nearly two-hundred years. At the apex of this society, ruled a feudal elite notorious for its wealth and love of luxury. It was composed of politically savvy, diplomatically adept, well-educated and multilingual men — and women. These women played an astonishing and indispensable role in shaping the character of their unique society. They were ruling queens, independent barons, nuns and pilgrims. They were merchants and artisans, diplomats and spies. They were warriors defending besieged cities and the most pitiful victims of conflict as slaves after a defeat.While many primary sources readily recorded specific and noteworthy actions taken by individual women, there is no comprehensive or systematic description of women’s contribution to the life and society of Outremer. All we have are fragments of a mosaic badly damaged by time. Yet even these remnants have largely been neglected due to the prevailing emphasis on the era’s military history. The Powerful Women of Outremer redresses that imbalance. In a chronological narrative, women’s contributions to the crusader states are highlighted. The book then explores women’s societal role in thematic chapters. Finally, a series of short biographies shine a light on the lives of individual women. By piecing together the scattered remnants of the historical mosaic, The Powerful Women of Outremer offers readers a clearer understanding of the importance of women to the history of the Near East and a richer picture of the women themselves.

In the hot and steamy July of 1961, a hedonistic weekend at Lord Astor’s Buckinghamshire estate Cliveden set in motion a chain of events like no other. It was where John Profumo, Secretary of State for War, first decided he must bed the 19-year-old Christine Keeler, a model and showgirl. But that weekend Keeler headed home to London with diplomat, and known Russian spy, Yevgeny Ivanov instead.Undeterred, Profumo quickly started dating Keeler, and begun to mix in her circle, which included society osteopath Stephen Ward and fellow model Mandy Rice-Davies. But alongside flirting with the decadent upper classes, Ward and Keeler also enjoyed the seedier side of city life, becoming entangled with violent petty criminals.The heady mix of sex and espionage soon exploded. With Profumo exposed as a fraud, the government was left scrabbling to protect its reputation. Had its war minister been duped by the Soviets into careless pillow talk instigated by a Communist sympathiser? Both Ward and Keeler would become victims of the subsequent witch hunt. Ward would die by suicide and Keeler was branded a whore and liar.The Profumo Affair was the scandal that rocked the 60s. But how and why did a brief romance between a married MP and a young showgirl go on to shatter so many lives and bring down the government of Harold ‘Supermac’ Macmillan?Using the official Denning Report, recently released archival material and the accounts of those involved, Vanessa Holburn pieces together this surprisingly relatable story and asks; what really happened behind the headlines?

Scandals and high political office regularly coincide. Over the last five decades, with the world watching the American president as its preeminent international figure, scandals affecting the president have had both international origins and international consequences. Every president from Richard Nixon to Donald Trump has faced scandal but only a handful have faced a scandal so large that it threatened impeachment or even the political system itself. Hence, this is a study of five scandals or in the case of Clinton and Trump, scandalous presidencies that produced impeachments· Nixon and Watergate· Reagan and Iran-Contra· Clinton and Impeachment· Bush and the 2000 election/Trump and the 2016 election· Trump and ImpeachmentsAlong the way, several trends have shaped the course of presidential scandals. One set has been political. Scandal operates in tandem with partisanship. The intensity of party divisions was obviously a factor in creating the context for all the scandals discussed. Scandal also springs from personality. Few would disagree that the character of Nixon, Clinton and Trump was the seedbed for the scandals they faced. But more broadly, it seems the traits required of a successful presidential candidate have changed. What would once have damned a candidate is no longer an insurmountable obstacle. What blocked Gary Hart in 1988 could not stop Donald Trump in 2016. The second group of trends stem from the changing media landscape. Richard Nixon operated in a world dominated by major TV networks. Clinton in a time that saw the emergence of cable channels such as Fox News that tailored their coverage to the biases of their viewers; and Trump in a world of internet websites and social media, where securing attention takes precedence over accuracy. These trends have added fuel to gossip and therefore scandal. As the 2016 election demonstrated, they have also enabled a new form of cyber warfare that probes US weaknesses by fostering internal disunity. The question now is: Does scandal still carry a cost? In 2024, the jury is still deliberating.

Let's go on a journey through 5,000 years of tourism in Egypt starting with the pre-2011 economic height, back through the Thomas Cook cruises in the nineteenth century to the ancient Egyptians themselves making journeys down the Nile to visit Abydos and Memphis on pilgrimage, or to travel for work.while tourism itself is a new concept exploring the local (and not so local environment) is almost hardwired into human nature. And considering the Giza pyramids were a thousand years old at the time of Ramses II, there would have been many wonderful things to see.This book explores the tourism industry and its development from selling amulets at ancient temples, through manufacturing mummies for tourists to buy to adventure trips in the modern day. As numbers of visitors increased so did the business of tourism including refreshments, accommodation, guided tours and souvenirs.This book will provide a comprehensive introduction to Egypt and its attraction to tourists from the pharaonic period to the modern day. while thousands of years separate us the evidence shows many traveled for the same reasons people do today.

The Battle of Itter Castle was undoubtedly one of the strangest events of the Second World War, being one of only two occasions during the war in which Americans and Germans fought side by side.The castle was seized by the Nazis on 7 February 1943, on the direct orders of Heinrich Himmler, and in just ten weeks was changed into a five-star prison for a number of high-ranking French dignitaries, both civilian and military.In the final days of the war, in May 1945, with the castle's German guards having deserted their posts and an attack by SS units imminent, those inside the castle realised they needed help. Having sent out two men to try to make contact with American forces, it was then a case of sit and wait, not knowing if they had been successful in their task or had been captured and killed by the SS.Help eventually arrived in the shape of United States Army Captain John C. “Jack” Lee, his tank and a handful of men, along with German Wehrmacht officer Major Josef “Sepp” Gangl, and some of his men. Although happy that their 'prayers' had been answered and help had arrived, the French dignitaries could not hide their disappointment at such a small force of rescuers.The subsequent battle started early on the morning of Saturday, 5 May, and continued until mid-afternoon when a larger American force arrived and defeated the remaining SS forces. The victory came at a price for Major Gangl, who was the only one of the defenders to lose his life in the fighting.

De Gaulle and Churchill examines the tense and complicated relationship between General de Gaulle as leader of the Free French on the one hand and Winston Churchill and the British Government on the other.Evan McGilvray shows that De Gaulle was a career soldier, not a politician by any means, prior to 1940 but stepped into the leadership vacuum after the fall of France to provide a vital figurehead and rallying point for the Free French movement. His experiences in WW1, where he had served with distinction and was decorated but then was captured and so missed the nadir of despair expressed in the mutiny of 1917, meant he did not share the general defeatism of his peers in 1940.De Gaulle had demonstrated between the wars that he understood modern warfare and the need for modernization and reform of the French forces.Churchill valued the Free French contribution, particularly the French colonies as bulwarks to the British Middle East and jumping-off points for a Mediterranean counteroffensive, but demonstrated his ruthless willingness to ride roughshod over French sensibilities. This was most famously demonstrated by the sinking of the French fleet to prevent it falling into German hands.The author traces their difficult relationship from the dark days of the Fall of France, to the final victory, with de Gaulle by then installed as head of the provisional government of the French Republic. This fascinating study concludes with the immediate post-war period, by which time Churchill and de Gaulle had developed a warmer, more mutually respectful relationship.

Following the German attack on the Soviet Union in 1941, the German-Soviet non-aggression pact was officially broken. After initial successes, it quickly became clear that the enemy could not be defeated that easily, as the unknown terrain and extreme weather conditions continued to exacerbate the problems. Lieutenant Hohberg, who had previously fought in the French campaign, had been sent to the East after receiving his promotion. Having led his battery several times, he was now waiting in vain for tank support. However, the lack of supplies, not to mention the fire raids and air raids, made any further advance impossible, and with the Russian winter approaching, he knew that they would have to reach the Donets as soon as possible…

The British Army started the development of flame throwers in 1938, but progress was slow and interest was side-lined after Dunkirk while the army reequipped. Investment in a flame-throwing tank only returned to the agenda thanks to interest by General Percy Hobart when he developed ‘funnies’ for 79th armored Division and the concept gained the support of General Sir Alan Brooke.141 (The Buffs) Regiment RAC had been converted to Churchill Tanks at the end of 1941 and in early 1944 they were earmarked for another change of role to the Crocodile conversion of the new Mk VII Churchill tank. This flame throwing system was secret and started to arrive with the regiment in April 1944. By D-Day only one squadron was equipped and trained, with space on the landing craft only available for two troops to land in support of 50th Division.The rest of the regiment arrived by the end of June and were in action with various formations across the front. There followed a period of misuse by those they supported and learning on the job by the regiment’s squadrons, but by the middle of the campaign a clear doctrine for the use of the Crocodile had emerged and they were in great demand.

Written neither as a conventional biography or battalion history, this work centres on the remarkable life of Joe Waite, a boy soldier of the Great War. Though, in telling his story, the names and lives of 64 of his fallen comrades are also revealed. All were lost in just one month of fighting, during the hell that was the Third Battle of Ypres — also known as Passchendaele.Born in a tough, working-class neighbourhood in Coventry, in the heart of the industrial Midlands, Joe’s childhood was blighted by the loss of his mother and tempered by his father’s decision to separate him from his siblings and re-marry. The need to earn his keep forced him into factory work from an early age, soon resulting in a humbling brush with the law. Eventually, the outbreak of war, and later, a family row over a pair of boots, lead to his enlistment in the army, at just 16 years old.Hiding the secret of his true age from his comrades in the 1/7th (TF) battalion, The Royal Warwickshire Regiment, Joe left Coventry and its troubles far behind as he fought his way across Northern France, including at the infamous Battle of the Somme. His time on the Western Front would eventually draw to a close outside the town of Ypres in Belgium, in October 1917. In that month, and still officially too young to fight, Joe was awarded a Military Medal for his bravery at the Battle of Broodseinde.Using sources such as war diaries, personal, public, and military records, the account of not only the battle, but also the story of each man of Joe’s unit who fell there, is told. With further reference to a unique eyewitness account, voice is also given to what thoughts and feelings the men may have experienced as they fought in the mud of Ypres. Then, as the culmination of an exhaustive and painstaking research project, the stories of the fallen are told, together, for the first time. From civilian life to military service, each mini-biography is a sensitive and respectful telling of the unique and varied accounts of so many men, from so many different backgrounds, allowing for a renewed appreciation of a generation now lost to history.These stories tell of men from all over Britain and even beyond. Men who eventually became soldiers in an infantry battalion originally raised in Coventry, but whose makeup changed so much, as war exerted its toll. Where records allow, it also tells of how their families and communities remembered the fallen, so many of whom have no known resting place. Standing chiefly as a fitting tribute to those lost soldiers, this work concludes with the story of Joe’s life after the Great War. With one final tragedy to come, its telling will eventually lead to a stark truth; that it isn’t only through the eyes of a soldier that the cruelty of war can be seen so harshly.

For several months in 1943, seven young airmen, all volunteers, were moulded into an RAF crew tasked with undertaking perilous operations over Occupied Europe. Drawn together from England, Argentina, and Canada, the crew, led by their captain, Flight Lieutenant Peter Bartter, were assigned to 138 (Special Duties) Squadron, based at RAF Tempsford. It was there that they flew low, over dangerous territory to deliver agents and equipment to aid the Resistance in Occupied Europe.When the Allies opened new fronts in North Africa and Italy, Bartter’s crew was seconded for some weeks to 624 Squadron flying from Blida in Algeria and Protville in Tunisia. On their return to the UK, they had the additional task of bringing back Winston Churchill’s son, Randolph.The crew’s last operation would be to fly Flemming Muus, as head of SOE in Denmark, to Roskilde in Denmark. However, tragedy struck when their Halifax Mk.II, BB378, was shot down approaching its destination on the night of 10/11 December 1943.Exemplary piloting skills from Peter Bartter brought the aircraft down in a frozen field with no injuries. Muus thankfully escaped. The crew, meanwhile, split into two groups — the officers, and the NCOs.The officers managed to evade capture and reach Sweden. One of the officers, Ernesto Howell, went on to re-join 138 Squadron, but was sadly killed flying over the North Sea in November 1944.The NCOs’ luck gave out, and they were all captured, spending the rest of the war in the notorious Stalag IV-B. From there, one of the NCOs managed to escape just before the camp liberated by the Russians.In this book, the crew are traced from their recruitment, to training, deployment and, for the survivors, their post-war lives. The next generation, René, son of agent Ernest Gimpel, and Nigel Atkins, son of Brian Atkins, the co-pilot, have become firm friends. Nigel Atkins traveled across Europe on a journey of discovery as he has met and interviewed many people while visiting multiple locations the crew only visited from above.From daring flights over occupied Europe to meetings over seventy years later, the excavation of the crash site and new friendships formed, this book has it all.

Tells the story of the thousands of enslaved African Americans who fled to British forces during the war in what became the largest emancipation of enslaved Americans until the abolition of slavery in the United States.During the Anglo-American War of 1812, British forces launched hundreds of amphibious raids on the United States. The richest parts of the United States were slave-states, and thousands of enslaved African Americans fled to British forces in what was to be the largest emancipation of enslaved Americans until the abolition of slavery in the USA. From these refugees from slavery, the British built a force — the Corps of Colonial Marines. Black redcoats, they were a fusion of two great American fears, the return of the British King and an uprising by their own oppressed slaves. The Corps of Colonial Marines turned Britain's campaign on America's coasts from one of harassment to one of existential threat to the new nation. Although small in number, the Colonial Marines — fighting to liberate their own families as much as for Great Britain — exerted a massive psychological impact on the United States which paralysed American resistance with fear of a widespread slave uprising, and allowed British forces in the Chesapeake to burn down Washington DC.As well as examining this little-remembered part of British military and African-American history, this book will also look to the post-war history of the Colonial Marines, their continued survival as a unique ethnic group in the Caribbean today, and their involvement in the largest act of armed African-American resistance to slavery. The "Battle of Negro Fort" in 1816 was the only time American forces left American territory to destroy a fugitive slave community — a community led by former Colonial Marines who, when faced with American attack, raised the British flag.This book brings black history to the fore of the War of 1812, and gives a voice to those enslaved people who — amidst great power competition between a slave-holding Republic and a slave-holding Empire — demonstrated exceptional bravery and initiative to gain precious freedom for themselves and their descendants.

How well do you know Star Trek?Lifelong science fiction fan, podcaster and author Tom Salinsky decided that the answer was “not well enough”, and so at the beginning of 2022, he embarked on a two-year mission to watch everything from the start of The Original Series to the end of Enterprise, at the rate of one episode per day. This book is the first part of that odyssey, covering the 79 television episodes which started it all, the animated series which briefly brought it back in the 1970s, the first six original movies and the full run of The Next Generation.As well as having fun saluting the show’s triumphs, cringing at its lapses in taste, and admiring its willingness to swing for the fences, there’s lots of fascinating behind-the-scenes information here. Why were salt-cellars unchanged in the 23rd century? Was Gene Roddenberry really not allowed to show a woman’s belly button? How many characters get killed during the run of The Animated Series? Who actually wrote the script for Wrath of Khan? How did Paramount get Next Generation on the air when no network would touch it?But you’ll also get the benefit of a complete overview of this landmark series, watching it unfold and familiar elements appear — often much later than you think. When’s the first mention of the Federation? Of Kirk’s time being the 23rd century? Of there being no money in the future? And some elements appear rather earlier than you might think — which episode is the first to feature a Holodeck?Whether you’re a die-hard fan, a casual viewer, or just someone interested in the history of television, you’ll adore coming on this daily journey though the highs and lows of one of the most significant and much-loved media properties in the world.

In the summer of 1940, a new German aircraft began appearing in the skies over the British Isles. Unlike the rest of the Luftwaffe’s fleet in the Battle of Britain, these aircraft were flying at a height of 40,000 feet and higher — way beyond the reach of the RAF’s defending fighters.These virtually untouchable intruders were examples of the Junkers Ju 86P. The world’s first operational combat aeroplane equipped with a pressurized cabin, they were able to reach a maximum altitude of 42,000 feet. The Ju 86P’s introduction ushered in a new era of aerial warfare, where combat would take place at previously unimaginable heights.The Ju 86P was just one of many high-altitude aircraft projects developed by both the Axis and Allied powers during the Second World War. Others included the Vickers Wellington Mk.VI, Vickers Windsor, Boeing B-29 Superfortress, Junkers Ju 388, Heinkel He 274 and Henschel Hs 130. With pressurized cabins, such aircraft offered obvious tactical advantages: bombers and reconnaissance aircraft could operate safely above the maximum ceiling of the opposing side’s fighters, prompting intense development — especially by the British and Germans — of pressurized interceptors to meet the threat they posed.Combat in the Stratosphere is the first book devoted exclusively to exploring the fascinating story of the development and operational history of aircraft designed specifically for high-altitude operations during the Second World War.But this is not a book solely about the machines themselves. It also focuses on the men who flew these revolutionary aircraft, both in the testing phase and in combat, and the physical challenges these courageous airmen faced, as they pushed themselves to the very edge of physical endurance in this desperate race to reach ever higher altitudes.Drawing on a wide range of sources, including air combat reports, British Cabinet files and Air Ministry documents, as well as first-hand accounts of aeronautical engineers and the pilots who flew these aircraft, Combat in the Stratosphere reveals the full story of this largely overlooked aspect of Second World War air warfare, high above the skies of Europe, North Africa, the Soviet Union and Japan.

There are many books on Wellington’s campaigns during the Peninsular War. Yet very few examine the pivotal year of 1811, when he went on the offensive and forced Napoleon’s armies back over 300 kilometers, from the doors of Lisbon to the Spanish border. For two months he pursued the retreating French, fighting skirmishes and rearguards virtually the whole way.The French finally halted at the Spanish border and turned on Wellington in early May, where an epic three-day battle was fought at Fuentes de Oñoro. The rest of the year, Wellington defended the border while making plans to liberate Spain in 1811. Wellington’s Light Division and the defense of Portugal looks at the famed Light Division as it led the pursuit of the French and was involved in almost every combat and battle fought that year.The book also explores the stalemate of January and February 1811, where the division maintained outposts overlooking French positions in the vicinity of Santarem, as well as the pursuit of the French Army back to Spain in March and April, when the division fought many skirmishes, combats, and small battles, often on its own. These include the actions at Pombal, Condeixa, Redinha, Casal Novo, Foz d’Arouce, Freixada, and Sabugal. May saw the Light Division in a desperate fight at Fuentes de Oñoro, where for much of the battle it held the army’s right flank.For the rest of the year the Light Division was in the vicinity of Ciudad Rodrigo where it occupied ground that it held for much of 1810, where it served as Wellington’s advance outposts. The assumed similar positions and were engaged at Fuente Guinaldo and El Bodon. In addition to these fights, the book will examine the changes in the organization of the division, with the addition of new battalions and release of other units. It will also go into great detail on the problems it had with command and control — with its leading officers exhausted, requesting permission to return home to recuperate.Drawing on diaries, letters, and memoirs, the authors tell the story of the officers and men who fought in the division. Many of these sources have never been published before.